Refutations

Historical sects that departed from the creed of Ahl as-Sunnah wal-Jamāʿah: the Khawārij, Muʿtazilah, Jahmiyyah, and others. How they formed, what they taught, and how the scholars responded.

The creedal differences between Ahl as-Sunnah and Shīʿī theology, particularly concerning the Companions رضي الله عنهم and the caliphate. Framed educationally, not polemically.

The Islamic understanding of ʿĪsā (Jesus ﷺ) as a great prophet, and where it differs from Trinitarian theology. The Qur'anic position on the nature of God, the crucifixion, and the original message.

The shared Abrahamic heritage, the Islamic recognition of Mūsā (Moses ﷺ) and the Torah as originally revealed, and the theological points where Islam and Judaism differ.

The philosophical case for a Creator that Islam presents: the Kalām argument, the argument from design, and the fiṭrah. Engaging respectfully with the classical and modern arguments against God's existence.

The historical Persian religion encountered at the rise of Islam, its dualistic theology, and where it differs from Islamic tawḥīd.

A comparison of Sikh theology, its view of God and prophethood, and the Islamic understanding of the same questions.

The Buddhist framework of nontheism, suffering, and liberation, and how it contrasts with the Islamic view of a personal Creator, purpose, and accountability.

The Islamic position on the plurality of deities in Hindu traditions, and the tawḥīd-based answer to the question of one ultimate reality.

The philosophical view that only nature exists and everything can be explained by natural causes. Engagement with the underlying assumptions and the Islamic case for a reality beyond the material.

The 19th century Bahai movement, its claim of a new prophet after Muḥammad ﷺ, and the Islamic position that he ﷺ was the seal of the prophets.

A contemporary movement that rejects the authority of hadith and claims to follow the Qur'an alone. The Islamic response rooted in the Qur'an itself, which commands obedience to the Prophet ﷺ.

Classical Islamic engagement with Greek philosophy (falsafah) and the ongoing question of how reason and revelation relate. The positions of al-Ghazālī, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Taymiyyah, and others.

The worldview that separates religion from public life. The Islamic position that faith and society are not two separate spheres, and what this means practically.

Political liberalism's foundational assumptions about individual autonomy and the self-defining self, compared with the Islamic framework of purpose, accountability, and community.

A respectful look at the Islamic view of gender, dignity, and rights, and where the framing of modern feminism aligns with, differs from, or is reinterpreted by Islamic scholars.

The philosophical movement that treats tradition as subject to reinterpretation by modern assumptions. The Islamic scholarly response rooted in preserving the meaning the Salaf understood.

Secular humanism's placement of humanity as the source of meaning and value. The Islamic response: meaning comes from Allah, and human dignity is rooted in being His servants.

The position that science is the only valid source of knowledge. The Islamic case that revelation, reason, and observation all yield real knowledge, each in their domain.

Practices passed down as 'Islamic' that have no basis in the Qur'an or Sunnah. How to distinguish authentic Islam from cultural traditions that were attached to it over time.